\t\t\t\tAs the age of imperialism ended, new governments formed throughout the post-colonial world.\u00a0 These newly autonomous nations developed in the shadow of the Cold War, which set the tone for their foreign policy. Communist and capitalist powers alike sent aid to develop and influence these nations.\u00a0 All nations that sent aid held agendas; they desired the political advantage that came with influence in the developing world.\u00a0 However, these newly formed nations held agendas of their own, such as an automatous, effective government and the ability to determine their own culture.\u00a0 Native citizenry worked towards these goals while as they accepted foreign aid.\u00a0 Collections from four volunteers who experienced the extreme example of this self- determination, revolution, informs this essay and clarify the relationship between self-determined culture and foreign aid.<\/p>\n
The Peace Corps was contemporary with other development volunteering impulses.\u00a0 Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs) met volunteers from post-imperial, capitalist, and communist countries, which each had an interest in relations with the developing world.\u00a0 Sometimes, relations between volunteers were professional.\u00a0 On 16 August 1971, Gail Wadsworth (Uganda, 1971-73) wrote about her British colleague, The Western-bloc were not, however, the only nations that took part in projects to develop gain political favor with the post-colonial world.\u00a0 Projects led by communist nations were present in Uganda during Wadsworth\u2019s stay.\u00a0 On 16 September 1917, she wrote, \u201cJust outside of Tororo the Russians are building a farm school which is supposed to be staffed by Russian teachers.\u00a0 That could be really interesting if I could get to meet them.\u201d[4]<\/a>\u00a0 This school appeared in another letter the next month, \u201cThe President is in Tororo again today.\u00a0 There is a tractor mechanic school about 18 miles out, built & staffed by the Russians.\u00a0 He came to open that.\u201d[5]<\/a>\u00a0 This was not the only communist-led project in which the president was interested.\u00a0 On 2 October 1971, Wadsworth wrote, “Well, the President or someone decided that the lawn of Tororo Girls School was the best place for the helicopter to land if the President were coming to Tororo.\u00a0 He was coming to Tororo to dedicate a rice paddy (or something) that the Chinese had \u2018built\u2019 near here.\u201d[6]<\/a>\u00a0 This communist presence shows that the development impulse was not an exclusively Western one, and extended across all nations trying to build alliances.<\/p>\n Yet, the host counties had their own agendas for developing both infrastructure and culture.\u00a0 For example, throughout Wadsworth\u2019s service, the Ugandan government grew increasingly nationalist and deported several groups of expatriates. [7]<\/a> [8]<\/a> In one letter, she wrote her parents, \u201cThe Tororo butcher was Somalian & his 2 brothers were killed 2 months ago in the trouble in Moroto.\u00a0 He just gave up on this place & went to Somalia.\u00a0 Now there is no meat in town.\u201d[9]<\/a>\u00a0In addition to purifying the Ugandan race, the government also implemented policies to purify Ugandan culture.\u00a0 In June 1972, Wadsworth wrote, Nationalist sentiments and a citizenry\u2019s desire to develop their nation could also lead to revolution.\u00a0 Though this discontentment focused on the government and not at foreign aid, circumstances sometimes progressed to the point where evacuation was necessary.\u00a0 Wadsworth was evacuated from Uganda, as was Geer Wilcox (Dominican Republic, 1963-65) when the Dominican Civil War grew too dangerous.[11]<\/a>\u00a0Holmquist was present for the Nigerian Civil War, but because the fighting stayed distant she stayed in Nigeria.\u00a0 In her tapes, she spoke against the need to fight, comparing internal skirmishes to those of the European Medieval Era that only weakened the nation.[12]<\/a>\u00a0 Finally, Debby Prigal (Ghana, 1981-83) experienced difficult conditions both before and after the coup.\u00a0 Ghana had had unpredictably stocked shops,[13]<\/a> the world\u2019s most over-valued currency,[14]<\/a> and an incredibly unreliable postal system.\u00a0 After the coup took place, Prigal wrote home, At once, nations self-identified as \u2018developed\u2019 offered aid to the developing world and the developing world also took great pains to develop itself.\u00a0 While these goals are fundamentally aligned, there are nuances in their implementation which caused tensions between the foreign aid and the desire for development by the governed.\u00a0 One tension resulted from an integral conservatism in foreign aid.\u00a0 Foreign aid is given by a government to a government.\u00a0 The prerequisite understanding of the aiding government is that the aided government will remain consistent and that aid will be given within such parameters.\u00a0 However, there were times when development aid was not enough for the native citizenry; to function as a collective, their government itself had to change to reflect the needs of the people.\u00a0 A second friction can be seen in the cultural development.\u00a0 While a PCV can work on projects determined through partnership of the two governments, they cannot develop the local culture, such as arts, fashion, and crafts.\u00a0 This development had to be done by the native people, seen here most prominently in the Ugandan desire to be rid of all expatriates.\u00a0 Such tensions are a part of any foreign aid endeavor and can to a greater or lesser extent determine the usefulness and impact of foreign aid to a partner nation.\u00a0 The examples here show that such aid is often coveted and necessary, yet only within the prerequisites of an independently functioning government and a vibrant local culture.<\/p>\n [1]<\/a> Letter, Gail Wadsworth to Mr. & Mrs. C. M. Wadsworth, 16 August 1970, Peace Corps Community Archives: Gail Wadsworth, Box 1, Folder 4: Correspondence 1969-71 (1\/2) Uganda 1970-72, American University Archives and Special Collections, American University Library.<\/p>\n [2]<\/a> Letter, Gail Wadsworth to Mr. & Mrs. C. M. Wadsworth, 15 December 1971, Peace Corps Community Archives: Gail Wadsworth, Box 1, Folder 5: Correspondence 1971-72 (2\/2) Uganda 1970-72, American University Archives and Special Collections, American University Library.<\/p>\n [3]<\/a> Audio recording, Hofer Holmquist, Peace Corps Community Archives: Hofer Holmquist, Box 1, Reel 9727, Side 2, American University Archives and Special Collections, American University Library.<\/p>\n [4]<\/a> Gail Wadsworth to Mr. & Mrs. C. M. Wadsworth, 16 August 1970.<\/p>\n [5]<\/a> Letter, Gail Wadsworth to Mr. & Mrs. C. M. Wadsworth, 26 September 1971, Peace Corps Community Archives: Gail Wadsworth, Box 2, Folder 5: Correspondence 1971-72 (2\/2) Uganda 1970-72, American University Archives and Special Collections, American University Library.<\/p>\n [6]<\/a> Letter, Gail Wadsworth to Mr. & Mrs. C. M. Wadsworth, 2 October 1971, Peace Corps Community Archives: Gail Wadsworth, Box 1, Folder 5: Correspondence 1971-72 (2\/2) Uganda 1970-72, American University Archives and Special Collections, American University Library.<\/p>\n [7]<\/a> Letter, Gail Wadsworth to Mr. & Mrs. C. M. Wadsworth, 16 August 1970, Peace Corps Community Archives: Gail Wadsworth, Box 1, Folder 4: Correspondence 1969-71 (1\/2) Uganda 1970-72, American University Archives and Special Collections, American University Library.<\/p>\n [8]<\/a> Uganda being a developing country there is a definite need to create a \u201cnational\u201d character.\u00a0 This is particularly difficult here with the number of tribes in this country.\u00a0 Ceclaring English as the national language was one attempt at this, but there is also a lot of pressure to change it to Kiswahili.\u00a0 Neither English nor Kiswahili is native to Uganda, but Luganda is too closely connected with the Baganda people.\u00a0 There is also being initiated a National Service which would require all educated personas to donate 2 years to the service of the country.<\/p>\n Also the Indians run most of the shops.\u00a0 Many of the Indians were born here.\u00a0 Some have British, or Indian, or Ugandan citizenship, but some have no citizenship.\u00a0 Well, beginning this month the government has been moving in, taking over the shops & turning them over to Ugandans, and deporting the Asians.\u00a0 My Asian students told me that they all had to be out of the country by next March.\u00a0 The Kenyans are being returned to Kenya between September & December.\u00a0 Peace Corps may be next on the list.\u00a0 AID is pulling out by December 1971, after which Tororo Girls School will have no more American contract teachers.<\/p>\n [9]<\/a> Letter, Gail Wadsworth to Mr. & Mrs. C. M. Wadsworth, 3 September 1971, Peace Corps Community Archives: Gail Wadsworth, Box 1, Folder 5: Correspondence 1971-72 (2\/2) Uganda 1970-72, American University Archives and Special Collections, American University Library.<\/p>\n [10]<\/a> Letter, Gail Wadsworth to Mr. & Mrs. C. M. Wadsworth, 1 June 1972, Peace Corps Community Archives: Gail Wadsworth, Box 1, Folder 5: Correspondence 1971-72 (2\/2) Uganda 1970-72, American University Archives and Special Collections, American University Library.<\/p>\n [11]<\/a> Audio recording, Geer Wilcox, Peace Corps Community Archives: Geer Wilcox, Box 1, 38a, American University Archives and Special Collections, American University Library.<\/p>\n [12]<\/a> Ann Hofer Holmquist, Reel 9727, Side 2.<\/p>\n [13]<\/a> Letter, Debby Prigal to the Van de Nove\u2019s & the Prigals, 25 July 1981, Peace Corps Community Archives: Debbie Prigal, Box 1, Folder 7: Ghana 1981-1983 Letters to Debby\u2019s Parents 9\/17\/81-5\/15\/83, American University Archives and Special Collections, American University Library.<\/p>\n [14]<\/a> Letter, Debby Prigal to the Prigal Family, 17 September 1981, Peace Corps Community Archives: Debby Prigal, Box 1, Folder 7: Ghana 1981-1983 Letters to Debby\u2019s Parents 9\/17\/81-5\/15\/83, American University Archives and Special Collections, American University Library.<\/p>\n
\nShe\u2019s quite nice but very anxious to return to England.\u00a0 After one semester of teaching I\u2019ll be second in experience in the English Department.\u00a0 The turnover of teachers throughout the country is fantastic.\u00a0 British contract usually come out for 2 years.[1]<\/a>
\nOther times, the relationships were friendlier.\u00a0 Wadsworth wrote on 15 December 1971, \u201cThere is a Danish volunteer here now, Ellen Knudson, 28 yrs.\u00a0 She wants me to go on a trip with her and I\u2019ve just about decided to go.\u201d[2]<\/a>\u00a0 Ann Hofer Holmquist (Nigeria, 1966-68), too, mentions befriending and traveling with British volunteers to Niger.[3]<\/a>\u00a0 Such friendly relations typically developed between PCVs and other Western-bloc volunteers.<\/p>\n
\nWell, the most talked-about news here these days is that hot pants, mini skirts, & v-split maxis have been banned.\u00a0 The announcement was made last Saturday and 10 days were given, so it officially goes into effect next Monday.\u00a0 The police will enforce it then but \u2018people\u2019 are doing so now.[10]<\/a>
\nSuch measures show that the citizenry of host nations determined their own cultural development.<\/p>\n
\nI am perfectly fine; there has been a coup.\u00a0 There is no reason to worry.\u00a0 Things are perfectly normal.\u00a0 Tell everyone I\u2019m fine.
\nI will write but I\u2019m not sure how the mail will be.\u00a0 At this point the borders are closed but when they open up I\u2019ll try to get a letter through.
\nI had a nice vacation and school is supposed to start next Monday.\u00a0 Things are quiet here; there is a curfew but that is about all.
\nAll\u2019s well.[15]<\/a>
\nThings returned to normal quickly and Prigal returned to work.\u00a0 On 26 July 1982, she wrote home, \u201cSister Mary told me that 9 out of 12 of my students passed their \u2018A\u2019 level math.\u00a0 The national average is 30%.\u00a0 Last year 7 out of 9 failed, so she is happy.\u201d[16]<\/a>\u00a0 Together, these experiences show that in these instances governments were changed due to native address of deep-rooted systemic flaws. \u00a0Whether the Peace Corps perpetuated the problem, as was the case in Uganda, or was merely a symptom of much larger problems, such restructuring shows that host nations continued to develop themselves, even as foreign aid was accepted.<\/p>\n